Planning for information systems, as for any other system, begins with the identification of needs. In order to be effective, development of any type of computer-based system should be a response to need--whether at the transaction processing level or at the more complex information and support systems levels. Such planning for information systems is much like strategic planning in management. Objectives, priorities, and authorization for information systems projects need to be formalized. The systems development plan should identify specific projects slated for the future, priorities for each project and for resources, general procedures, and constraints for each application area. The plan must be specific enough to enable understanding of each application and to know where it stands in the order of development. Also the plan should be flexible so that priorities can be adjusted if necessary. King (King, 1995) in his recent article has argued that a strategic capability architecture - a flexible and continuously improving infrastructure of organizational capabilities – is the primary basis for a company's sustainable competitive advantage. He has emphasized the need for continuously updating and improving the strategic capabilities architecture.

SISP is the analysis of a corporation’s information and processes using business information models together with the evaluation of risk, current needs and requirements. The result is an action plan showing the desired course of events necessary to align information use and needs with the strategic direction of the company (Battaglia, 1991). The same article emphasizes the need to notethat SISP is a management function and not a technical one. This is consistent with the earlier distinction between the older data processing views and the modern strategic importance view of Information Systems. SISP thus is used to identify the best targets for purchasing and installing new management information systems and help an organization maximize the return on its information technology investment. A portfolio of computer-based applications is identified that will assist an organization in executing its business plans and realize its business goals. There is a growing realization that the application of information technology (IT) to a firm’s strategic activities has been one of the most common and effective ways to improve business performance.

Review of information systems planning models

Existing planning models can be broadly classified into impact and alignment models (Vitale et al., 1986). Impact models focus on the potential impact of information technology on organizational tasks and processes and use this as the basis to identify opportunities for deploying information systems. Alignment models, on the other hand, focus on aligning the information system’s plans and priorities with organizational strategy and business goals.
Michael Porter’s value chain analysis is by far the most widely used impact model.

According to Porter, ‘‘every firm is a collection of activities that are performed to design, produce, market, deliver, and support its product’’. These activities can be represented using a value chain. Value chain analysis helps in identifying key value-adding processes that could be made more effective using information technology. As a planning methodology, value chain analysis is too abstract as it does not provide specific guidelines for designing an information architecture, nor does it provide guidelines for systems development and implementation (Porter and Millar, 1985).Moreover, over the past year, there has been a strategic shift from thinking about value chains to value hubs where the ‘‘linear’’ value chain perspective has evolved to a ‘‘hub-centric’’ model, i.e. emarketplaces. This shift in thinking has been largely driven by two factors: the competitive pressures to respond to a direct selling strategy initiated by companies like Dell, and the maturation of the Internet and related technologies. These changes limit the applicability of the original value chain model for information systems planning for e-business.

Popular alignment methodologies include critical success factors, business systems planning (BSP) from IBM, strategic systems planning, information engineering (Martin, 1989) and method/1. Critical success factors (Rockart, 1979) methodology focuses on identifying key information needs of senior executives and building information systems around those key needs. The emphasis on senior management’s information requirements is based on an organizational control model of critical decisions being made by informed executives. However, the control in e-business is more diffused, autonomous and often occurs outside the organization. This reduces the usefulness of this methodology for EBIS architecture planning.

BSP combines top-down planning with bottom-up implementation and focuses on a firm’s business processes to derive data needs and classes. Similarly, strategic systems planning methodology stresses functional area analysis to identify the data architecture, which is then used to design information systems. Information engineering provides techniques for building enterprise, data, and process models. These models are combined to form a comprehensive knowledge base that is used to create and maintain information systems.

Experience of organizations suggests that these methodologies tend to be too detailed, time-consuming, and expensive. The roots of these methodologies can be traced to systems development practices of the 1980s. Since then new paradigms such as component based development have come into use. These paradigms place less emphasis on building applications from scratch and stress a factory approach of assembling pre-packaged components to create application systems. Hence, organizations often find methodologies such as BSP too rigid and unsuitable for the highly compressed development cycle times that prevail in e-business applications development. Moreover, EBIS planning requires addressing how diverse systems and platforms will be integrated to meet organizational requirements. The alignment methodologies fail to explicitly address such integration issues because they are from an era when organizations created their own information systems and cross-platform integration was not a primary need.

The ISP Steps

The information systems plan project determines the sequence for implementing specific information systems. The goal of the strategy is to deliver the most valuable business information at the earliest time possible in the most cost-effective manner.
The end product of the information systems project is an information systems plan (ISP).

Once deployed, the information systems department can implement the plan with confidence that they are doing the correct information systems project at the right time and in the right sequence. The focus of the ISP is not one information system but the entire suite of information systems for the enterprise. Once developed, each identified information system is seen in context with all other information systems within the enterprise.

Information Systems Plan Development Steps

1.) Create the mission model

2.) Develop a high-level data model- The high-level data model is an Entity Relationship diagram created to meet the data needs of the mission descriptions.

3.) Create the resource life cycles (RLC) and their nodes- Resources are drawn from both the mission descriptions and the high level data model. Resources and their life cycles are the names, descriptions and life cycles of the critical assets of the enterprise, which, when exercised achieve one or more aspect of the missions.

4.) Allocate precedence vectors among RLC nodes- Tied together into a enablement network, the resulting resource life cycle network forms a framework of enterprises assets that represent an order and set of inter-resource relationships.

5.) Allocate existing information systems and databases to the RLC nodes.

6.) Allocate standard work break down structures (WBS) to each RLC node- Employing WBS and metrics from a comprehensive methodology supports project management standardization, repeatability, and self-learning.

7.) Load resources into each WBS node- Once the resources are determined, these are loaded into the project management meta entities of the meta data repository, that is, metrics, project, work plan and deliverables.

8.) Schedule the RLC nodes through a project management- The entire suite of projects is then scheduled on an enterprise-wide basis.

9.) Produce and review of the ISP- The scheduled result is predicable: Too long, too costly, and too ambitious. At that point, the real work starts: paring down the suite of projects to a realistic set within time and budget.

10.) Execute and adjust the ISP through time- As the ISP is set into execution, technology changes occur that affect resource loadings. In this case, only steps 6-9 need to be repeated.

FOUR STEPS TO IMPLEMENTATION

The adoption and implementation of the proposed approach to complying with regulation requirements consists of four steps. Activities in these four steps can be easily incorporated into the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) currently in use by the organization. “Information System Life Cycle Phases” is a model that demonstrates integrating regulation requirements into a popular SDLC.

1. Discovery and Identification Specific regulation requirements relevant to information systems should be documented. A current risk survey report may be used if available.

Identification and classification of binding enterprise regulations, standards, and frameworks should be included in a dictionary of terms and definitions. This dictionary should be the basis for a common language among all the organizational units in the enterprise that are involved in implementing and sustaining regulatory compliance measures. Existing and planned information systems and the identification of gaps between regulation requirements and their implementation should also be surveyed.

It is possible to have regulation requirements from multiple regulatory agents. Conversely, IT controls that were developed in response to a particular regulation requirement may be applicable to several information systems. One byproduct of this exercise is the identification of duplicate controls that were implemented to remedy regulatory requirements. A list of information systems, their risk classification, and associated controls presents an excellent opportunity to streamline and consolidate the number of IT controls in the organization.

Once IT controls are documented, a logical next step would be to expand the knowledge base by linking relevant policies, procedures, work instructions, forms, process owner information, and system managers. A repository of such information could help reduce the burden and high demand on IT professionals and make the audit process more efficient.

2. Classification Information systems should be classified to facilitate prioritization according to criteria such as:

• The importance of a system to a business process. An existing risk survey report can be used as a source for information system classification and serve as a starting point. Control self-assessment is a popular tool that can be used for establishing information systems classification.
• The impact of the information system on one or more business processes and the risk factors associated with information systems.
• The interdependency with other internal and external information systems.

Once prioritized, a viable work plan for implementing regulation requirements can be developed for the information systems managed by the IT department.

3. Mapping To establish ownership and direct responsibility for each information system in the organization, it is necessary to map information systems. Mapping should identify the following relationships:
• Information system to business process.
• Regulation requirements to organizational unit(s).
• Information system ownership.
• Identification or discovery of “orphan” information systems.
• Identification of multi-owner information systems.

Any identified gaps must be investigated and resolved. Additionally, the mapping information collected in this effort should be well-documented and maintained as an ongoing regulation compliance activity.

4. Development, Testing, Implementation, and Maintenance The development, testing, implementation, and maintenance of regulation requirements include:

• Development of code necessary to satisfy regulation requirements.
• Testing and validation of regulation compliance of information systems developed in-house.
• Validation that all vendor-supplied information systems comply with regulation requirements.
• Testing, validation, and approval of external information systems services compliance with regulation requirements (including software as a service-based (SaaS) systems).

Certification demonstrating regulatory compliance of information systems by all stakeholders is required to authorize systems for production use. During tough economic times and budget cuts, improving business processes is a good way to prepare for the up-turn cycle and for the inevitable wave of new regulations that are sure to hit our shores.

The prevailing best practice of doing more with less applies to internal and IT auditors just as it does to other stakeholders in business enterprises. Internal and IT auditors can add value to their audited parties, in particular, and to business organizations in general, by playing the role of trusted advisor. The primary role of an auditor is to verify compliance; identify risks, control deficiencies, and the effectiveness of existing controls; and produce an audit report for management.
Executive and Adjusting the ISP Through Time

IT projects are accomplished within distinct development environments. The two most common are: discrete project and release. The discrete project environment is typified by completely encapsulated projects accomplished through a water-fall methodology.

In release environments, there are a number of different projects underway by different organizations and staff of varying skill levels. Once a large number of projects are underway, the ability of the enterprise to know about and manage all the different projects degrades rapidly. That is because the project management environment has been transformed from discrete encapsulated projects into a continuous flow process of product or functionality improvements that are released on a set time schedule. The continuous flow process environment is characterized by:

• Multiple, concurrent, but differently scheduled projects against the same enterprise resource

• Single projects that affect multiple enterprise resources

• Projects that develop completely new capabilities, or changes to existing capabilities within enterprise resources

It is precisely because enterprises have transformed themselves from a project to a release environment that information systems plans that can be created, evolved, and maintained on an enterprise-wide basis are essential.

There are four major sets of activities within the continuous flow process environment. The user/client is represented at the top in the small rectangular box. Each of the ellipses represents an activity targeted to a specific need. The four basic needs are:

• Need Identification

• Need Assessment- is a process for determining and addressing needs, or "gaps" between current conditions and desired conditions, often used for improvement projects in education/training, organizations, or communities. In the context of community improvement, it is known as community needs analysis. It involves identifying material problems/deficits/weaknesses and advantages/opportunities/strengths, and evaluating possible solutions that take those qualities into consideration

• Design- is the planning that lays the basis for the making of every object or system. It is also the process or art of defining the architecture, components, modules, interfaces, and data for a system to satisfy specified requirements. One could see it as the application of systems theory to product development. There is some overlap with the disciplines of systems analysis, systems architecture and systems engineering.

• Deployment- The general deployment process consists of several interrelated activities with possible transitions between them. These activities can occur at the producer site or at the consumer site or both. Because every software system is unique, the precise processes or procedures within each activity can hardly be defined. Therefore, "deployment" should be interpreted as a general process that has to be customized according to specific requirements or characteristics.

The box in the center is the meta data repository. Specification and impact analysis is represented through the left two processes. Implementation design and accomplishment is represented by the right two processes. Two key characteristics should be immediately apparent. First, unlike the water-fall approach, the activities do not flow one to the other. They are disjoint. In fact, they may be done by different teams, on different time schedules, and involve different quantities of products under management. In short, these four activities are independent one from the other. Their only interdependence is through the meta data repository.

The second characteristic flows from the first. Because these four activities are independent one from the other, the enterprise evolves by means of releases rather than through whole systems. If it evolved through whole systems, then the four activities would be connected either in a waterfall or a spiral approach, and the enterprise would be evolving through major upgrades to encapsulated functionality within specific business resources. In contrast, the release approach causes coordinated sets of changes to multiple business resources to be placed into production. This causes simultaneous, enterprise-wide capability upgrades across multiple business resources.

Through this continuous-flow process, several unique features are present:

• All four processes are concurrently executing.
• Changes to enterprise resources occur in unison, periodically, and in a very controlled manner.
• The meta data repository is always contains all the enterprise resource specifications: current or planned. Simply put, if an enterprise resource semantic is not within the meta data repository, it is not enterprise policy.
• All changes are planned, scheduled, measured, and subject to auditing, accounting, and traceability.
• All documentation of all types is generated from the meta data repository.

ISP Summary
In summary, any technique employed to achieve an ISP must be accomplishable with less than 3% of the IT budget. Additionally, it must be timely, useable, maintainable, able to be iterated into a quality product, and reproducible. IT organizations, once they have completed their initial set of databases and business information systems will find themselves transformed from a project to a release environment.

The continuous flow environment then becomes the only viable alternative for moving the enterprise forward. It is precisely because of the release environment that enterprise-wide information systems plans that can be created, evolved, and maintained are essential.


References:
http://www.wiscorp.com/ISP_the_bet_your_business_project.pdf
http://web.njit.edu/~jerry/MIS-625/Articles/Pant-Ravichandran-2001.pdf
http://viu.eng.rpi.edu/publications/strpaper.pdf
http://www.theiia.org/intAuditor/itaudit/2009-articles/the-impact-of-regulation-on-information-system-planning/

HP

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On our second assignment our task is to interview a Systems Analyst and ask what skills and characteristics must a systems analyst develop in order to be more effective in any design modeling process.

AMS Group of Companies

AMS Group of Companies is our adopted company in our group discussion in SAD 1 which is on “System Analyst as a Project Manager”. We interview the MIS Head/System Analyst of the Andres M. Soriano (AMS) Group of Companies, Mr. Gemrald Glibara.

System Analyst, in a narrow sense, analysis of the current and future roles of proposed computer system in an organization, The system analyst (usually a software engineer or programmer) examines the flow of documents, information, and material to design a system that best meets the cost, performance, and scheduling objectives.
System characteristics

A component - an irreducible part or aggregation of parts that make up a system, also called a subsystem

Interrelated components- Dependence of one subsystem on one or more subsystems

Boundary- The line that marks the inside and outside of a system and that sets off the system form its environment

Purpose-The overall goal or function of a system

Environment- Everything external to a system that interacts with the system

Interface- it is a point of contact where a system meets its environment or where subsystems meet each other.

Constraint- A limit to what a system can accomplish

Input- Whatever a system takes from its environment in order to fulfill its purpose

Output- Whatever a system returns from its environment in order to fulfill its purpose

Four main skills of a System Analyst

1.) Analytical Skills
It is the ability to see things as systems, identify, analyze, and solve problems in an optimal way for a specific organization.
To test for analytical skills one might be asked to look for inconsistencies in an advertisement, put a series of events in the proper order, or critically read an essay. Usually standardized tests and interviews include an analytical section that requires the examiner to use their logic to pick apart a problem and come up with a solution.
Although there is no question that analytical skills are essential, other skills are equally required as well. For instance in systems analysis the systems analyst should focus on four sets of analytical skills: systems thinking, organizational knowledge, problem identification, and problem analyzing and solving.
It also includes the way we describe a problem and subsequently finding out the solutions.
2.) Technical Skills
It is the ability to understand how computers, data networks, databases, operating systems, etc. work together, as well as their potentials and limitations.

He has the knowledge and proficiencies required in the accomplishment of engineering, scientific, or any specific task.

Many aspects of your job as a system analyst are technically oriented.
• The following activities will help you stay up-to-date:
– Read trade publications
– Join professional societies
– Attend classes or teach at a local college
– Attend many courses or training sessions offered by your organizations
– Attend professional conferences, seminars, or trade shows
– Participate in electronic bulletin, new groups

You should be familiar as possible with information technology:
• Microcomputer, micro station, workstation, mainframe computers
• Programming languages
• Operating systems
• Database and file management systems
• Data communication standards
• Software for local and wide networks
• Web developing tools
• Decision support system generators
• Data analysis tools
• Data design tools


3.) Management Skills
It include organization’s recourse management, project management (people and money), risk management, and change management.

Also it is the practice of understanding, developing and deploying people and their skills. Well-implemented skills management should identify the skills that job roles require, the skills of individual employees, and any gap between the two.

To be most useful, skills management needs to be conducted as an ongoing process, with individuals assessing and updating their recorded skill sets regularly. These updates should occur at least as frequently as employees' regular line manager reviews, and certainly when their skill sets have changed.
There are four classes of management skills:

1- Resources
2- Project
3- Risk
4- Change management


4.) Communication Skills
It includes effective interpersonal communication (written, verbal, visual, electronic, face-to-face conversations, presentations in front of groups), listening, group facilitation skills.

The ability or the skill to transfer one’s thoughts, ideas and information from the sender to the receiver with the latter being understood the same effectively and efficiently is known as communication skills. It is one of the greatest skills of the soft skills and its importance is growing rapidly due to the rising complexities as a result of technological inventions.

In corporate terminology, communication is the process of exchange of information from the sender to the receiver and vice versa. There are different types of communication such as downward communication, upward communication, horizontal communication, crosswise communication, verbal communication; written communication etc., In downward communication, the flow of information is from the people at the superior level to the people at the subordinate level. On the other hand, in upward communication, the flow of information is from the subordinate level to the superior level. In horizontal information, the flow of information is from the people of same level to that of their counterparts at the same level. In crosswise communication, the flow of information is from one level to any other level which is either diagonal or crosswise without any reporting relationship. In verbal communication, the flow of communication, which is transferred orally to any level and it, is the most effective one as one can communicate effectively with one’s body language so as to have profound impact on the receiver. Whenever, there is a need to record the information in black and white, and then people go for written communication in which the communication is through mass mailing in written form.



Most important system concepts

1. Open system: a system that interacts freely with its environment, taking input and returning output.

An open system is a system that regularly exchanges feedback with its external environment. Open systems are systems, of course, so inputs, processes, outputs, goals, assessment and evaluation, and learning are all important. Aspects that are critically important to open systems include the boundaries, external environment and equifinality.

Healthy open systems continuously exchange feedback with their environments, analyze that feedback, adjust internal systems as needed to achieve the system’s goals, and then transmit necessary information back out to the environment.

2. Closed system: a system that is cut off from its environment and does not interact with it.

It is a "state of being isolated from its surrounding environment."The term often refers to an idealized system in which closure is perfect. In reality no system can be completely closed; there are only varying degrees of closure.

3. Modularity is dividing a system into parts/chunks/modules of relatively uniform size.

4. Decomposition is the process of breaking down a system into its component parts.

The purpose of decomposition is to allow the system analysts to:
• Break a system into small, manageable subsystem
• Focus on one are at a time

5. Coupling is the extent to which subsystems are dependent on each other.
Subsystem should be independent as possible. If one subsystem fails and other subsystem are highly dependent on it, then the other will either fail themselves or have problems functioning.

One of the important approaches in the modeling of the design process is the axiomatic approach (Suh et al., 1978). This approach is based on developing a set of global principles, or axioms, which can be applied in making decisions during the design process. These axioms are considered as general truths such that no violations or counter-examples can be observed. However, they can not be proven, therefore development of axioms is mainly a heuristic approach. The creative processes in 4 different design steps based on the axiomatic design theory are discussed in (Sekimoto and Ukai, 1994). These design steps are the definition of functional requirements, the identification of design parameters, the analysis of the proposed solutions in order to choose the best solution and check the final solution. The mapping from functional domain to physical domain is explained and the properties of design matrix, which is responsible for this mapping, are given. The axiomatic theory is also discussed by Dimarogonas (Dimarogonas, 1993) and implication of these rules on the design and manufacturing methodology is presented.

Systems analysts will need to continually upgrade their technical expertise and improve their ability to interact with users as the sophistication and complexity of technology advances. As more computing power is made available to the individual user and users develop more sophisticated knowledge of computers, they become more aware of the machine's potential and better able to suggest how computers could be used to increase their own productivity and that of the organization. Increasingly, users are able to design and implement more of their own applications and programs. The result is a growing demand for computer support specialists, help desk personnel, and technical consultants.

References:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_skill
http://www.articlesbase.com/training-articles/communication-skills-218336.html
http://managementhelp.org/misc/orgs-open-systems.pdf
www.cba.edu.kw/abo/pdf/chapter-2.ppt
http://www.interlabs.bradley.edu/NSF_CCLI/Demo/class6/module6/Skills_Pretest_Posttest_Answers.pdf
http://mechatronics.atilim.edu.tr/courses/mece401/reading/Chapter%2004%20Design%20Process%20Models.pdf

Evidence:

Information is an organizational resource which must be managed as carefully as other resources. Costs are associated with information processing. It must be managed to take full advantage of its potential.

A system is a combination of resources working together to transform inputs into usable outputs.

An information system is an arrangement of people, data, processes, interfaces, networks, and technology that interact to support and improve both day-to-day operations (data processing, transaction processing), as well as support the problem-solving and decision-making needs of management (information services, management information systems, executive support).

A computer application is a computer-based solution to one or more business problems or needs. One or more computer applications are typically contained within an information system.

Systems analysts study business, scientific, or engineering data processing problems and design new solutions using computers. They work to help an organization realize the maximum benefit from its investment in equipment, personnel, and business processes.

Analysts begin an assignment by discussing the systems problem with managers and users to determine its exact nature. Much time is devoted to clearly defining the goals of the system and understanding the individual steps used to achieve them so that the problem can be broken down into separate programmable procedures. Analysts then use techniques such as structured analysis, data modeling, information engineering, mathematical model building, sampling, and cost accounting to plan the system. Analysts must specify the inputs to be accessed by the system, design the processing steps, and format the output to meet the users' needs. Once the design has been developed, systems analysts prepare charts and diagrams that describe it in terms that managers and other users can understand. They may prepare cost-benefit and return-on-investment analyses to help management decide whether implementing the proposed system will be financially feasible.

When a system is accepted, analysts determine what computer hardware and software will be needed to set it up. They coordinate tests and observe initial use of the system to ensure it performs as planned. They prepare specifications, work diagrams, and structure charts for computer programmers to follow and then work with them to "debug," or eliminate errors from the system.

What do systems analysts do?

The rapid spread of computers has generated a need for highly trained workers to design and develop new hardware and software systems and to incorporate technological advances into new or existing systems. Job titles used to describe the broad category of computer-related occupations evolve rapidly, reflecting new areas of specialization or changes in technology as well as the preferences and practices of employers. Although many narrow specializations exist, this professional specialty group is commonly categorized into computer scientists, computer engineers, and systems analysts.

Far more numerous than do computer scientists and computer engineers, systems analysts use their knowledge and skills to solve computer problems and enable computer technology to meet the individual needs of an organization. They study business, scientific, or engineering data processing problems and design new solutions using computers. This process may include planning and developing new computer systems or devising ways to apply existing systems' resources to additional operations. Systems analysts may design entirely new systems, including both hardware and software, or add a single new software application to harness more of the computer's power. They work to help an organization realize the maximum benefit from its investment in equipment, personnel, and business processes. Most systems analysts generally work with a specific type of system depending on the type of organization they work for for example, business, accounting or financial systems, or scientific and engineering systems. Companies generally seek business systems analysts who specialize in the type of systems they use.

Analysts begin an assignment by discussing the systems problem with managers and users to determine its exact nature. Much time is devoted to clearly defining the goals of the system and understanding the individual steps used to achieve them so that the problem can be broken down into separate programmable procedures. Analysts then use techniques such as structured analysis, data modeling, information engineering, mathematical model building, sampling, and cost accounting to plan the system. Analysts must specify the inputs to be accessed by the system, design the processing steps, and format the output to meet the users' needs. Once the design has been developed, systems analysts prepare charts and diagrams that describe it in terms that managers and other users can understand. They may prepare cost-benefit and return-on-investment analyses to help management decide whether implementing the proposed system will be financially feasible.

When a system is accepted, analysts determine what computer hardware and software will be needed to set it up. They coordinate tests and observe initial use of the system to ensure it performs as planned. They prepare specifications, work diagrams, and structure charts for computer programmers to follow and then work with them to "debug," or eliminate errors from the system.

In some organizations a single worker called a programmer-analyst is responsible for both systems analysis and programming. (The work of computer programmers is described elsewhere in the Handbook.) As this becomes more commonplace, these analysts will increasingly work with Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools and object-oriented programming languages, as well as client/server applications development, and multimedia and Internet technology.

Many others specialize in analysis, application, or design of a particular system or piece of the system. Network or systems administrators, for example, may install, configure, and support an organizations systems or portion of a system. Telecommunications specialists generally are involved with the interfacing of computer and communications equipment. Computer security specialists are responsible for planning, coordinating, and implementing an organizations' information security measures. These and other growing specialty occupations reflect the increasing emphasis on client-server applications, the growth of the Internet, the expansion of World Wide Web applications and Intranets, and the demand for more end-user support. An example of this is the growing number of job titles relating to the Internet and World Wide Web such as Internet and Web developers, or Webmasters.

How do you prepare to become a systems analyst?

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
While there is no universally accepted way to prepare for a job as a systems analyst because employers' preferences depend on the work to be done, a bachelor's degree is virtually a prerequisite for most employers. Relevant work experience also is very important. For some of the more complex jobs, persons with graduate degrees are preferred.

Regardless of college major, employers generally look for people who are familiar with programming languages and have broad knowledge of and experience with computer systems and technologies, strong problem-solving and analysis skills, and good interpersonal skills. Courses in computer programming or systems design offer good preparation for a job in this field. For jobs in a business environment, employers usually want systems analysts to have a background in business management or a closely related field, while a background in the physical sciences, applied mathematics, or engineering is preferred for work in scientifically oriented organizations. Since employers generally look for experience, entry-level employees enhance their employment opportunities by participating in internship or co-op programs offered through their schools.

Systems analysts must be able to think logically and have good communication skills. They often deal with a number of tasks simultaneously; the ability to concentrate and pay close attention to detail is important. Although many computer specialists sometimes work independently, they often work in teams on large projects. They must be able to communicate effectively with computer personnel, such as programmers and managers, as well as with users or other staff who may have no technical computer background.

Systems analysts may be promoted to senior or lead systems analysts with experience. Those who show leadership ability also can advance to management positions, such as manager of information systems or chief information officer.

Many people develop advanced computer skills in other occupations in which they work extensively with computers, and then transfer into computer occupations. For example, an accountant may become a systems analyst or computer support specialist specializing in accounting systems development, or an individual may move into a systems analyst job after working as a computer programmer.

Nature of the Work

All organizations rely on computer and information technology to conduct business and operate efficiently. Computer systems analysts help organizations to use technology effectively and to incorporate rapidly changing technologies into their existing systems. The work of computer systems analysts evolves rapidly, reflecting new areas of specialization and changes in technology.

Computer systems analysts solve computer problems and use computer technology to meet the needs of an organization. They may design and develop new computer systems by choosing and configuring hardware and software. They may also devise ways to apply existing systems’ resources to additional tasks. Most systems analysts work with specific types of computer systems—for example, business, accounting, or financial systems or scientific and engineering systems—that vary with the kind of organization. Analysts who specialize in helping an organization select the proper system software and infrastructure are often called system architects. Analysts who specialize in developing and fine-tuning systems often are known as systems designers.

To begin an assignment, systems analysts consult managers and users to define the goals of the system. Analysts then design a system to meet those goals. They specify the inputs that the system will access, decide how the inputs will be processed, and format the output to meet users’ needs. Analysts use techniques such as structured analysis, data modeling, information engineering, mathematical model building, sampling, and cost accounting to make sure their plans are efficient and complete. They also may prepare cost-benefit and return-on-investment analyses to help management decide whether implementing the proposed technology would be financially feasible.

When a system is approved, systems analysts determine what computer hardware and software will be needed to set it up. They coordinate tests and observe the initial use of the system to ensure that it performs as planned. They prepare specifications, flow charts, and process diagrams for computer programmers to follow; then they work with programmers to “debug,” or eliminate errors, from the system. Systems analysts who do more in-depth testing may be called software quality assurance analysts. In addition to running tests, these workers diagnose problems, recommend solutions, and determine whether program requirements have been met.

In some organizations, programmer-analysts design and update the software that runs a computer. They also create custom applications tailored to their organization’s tasks. Because they are responsible for both programming and systems analysis, these workers must be proficient in both areas. (A separate section on computer programmers appears elsewhere in the Handbook.) As this dual proficiency becomes more common, analysts are increasingly working with databases, object-oriented programming languages, client–server applications, and multimedia and Internet technology.

One challenge created by expanding computer use is the need for different computer systems to communicate with each other. Systems analysts work to make the computer systems within an organization, or across organizations, compatible so that information can be shared. Many systems analysts are involved with these “networking” tasks, connecting all the computers internally, in an individual office, department, or establishment, or externally, as when setting up e-commerce networks to facilitate business among companies.

Work environment. Computer systems analysts work in offices or laboratories in comfortable surroundings. They usually work about 40 hours a week—about the same as many other professional or office workers. Evening or weekend work may be necessary, however, to meet deadlines or solve specific problems. Many analysts telecommute, using computers to work from remote locations.

Like other workers who spend long periods typing on a computer, computer systems analysts are susceptible to eyestrain, back discomfort, and hand and wrist problems such as carpal tunnel syndrome or cumulative trauma disorder.

One obstacle associated with expanding computer use is the inability of different computer systems to communicate with each other. Because maintaining up-to-date information—accounting records, sales figures, or budget projections, for example—is important in modern organizations, systems analysts may be instructed to make the computer systems in each department compatible so that information can be shared. Many systems analysts are involved with "networking" or connecting all the computers in an individual office, department, or establishment. A primary goal of networking is to allow users to retrieve data from a mainframe computer or a server and use it on their machine. This connection also allows data to be entered into the mainframe from a personal computer. Analysts must design the hardware and software to allow free exchange of data, custom applications, and the computer power to process it all. They study the seemingly incompatible pieces and create ways to link them so users can access information from any part of the system. Networks come in many variations and network systems and data communications analysts design, test, and evaluate systems such as Local Area Networks (LAN), Wide Area Networks (WAN), Internet, and Intranet and other data communications systems. These analysts perform network modeling, analysis and planning, and even research and recommend necessary hardware and software.
A problem is an undesirable situation that prevents the organization from fully achieving its purpose, goals, and objectives. An opportunity is the chance to improve the organization even in the absence of specific problems. (Some might argue that any unexploited opportunity is, in reality, a problem.) A directive is a new requirement imposed by management, government, or some external influence. (Some might argue that a directive until it is fully complied with is, in reality, a problem.)

A systems analyst facilitates the development of information systems and computer applications. The systems analyst performs systems analysis and design. Systems analysis is the study of a business problem or need in order to recommend improvements and specify the requirements for the solution. System design is the specification or construction of a technical, computer-based solution as specified by the requirements identified in a systems analysis.

Personal qualities helpful to systems analysts include:
• problem-solving abilities
• communication skills
• computer/IT experience
• self-discipline and self-motivation
• Project management capabilities

SPECIALIZED SKILLS OF SYSTEM ANALYSTS

Systems analysts must be able to think logically and have good communication skills. They often deal with a number of tasks simultaneously; the ability to concentrate and pay close attention to detail is important. Although many computer specialists sometimes work independently, they often work in teams on large projects. They must be able to communicate effectively with computer personnel, such as programmers and managers, as well as with users or other staff who may have no technical computer background.

Employers generally look for analysts who are familiar with programming languages and have broad knowledge of and experience with computer systems and technologies, strong problem-solving and analysis skills, and good interpersonal skills. Courses in computer programming or systems design offer good preparation for a job in this field. For jobs in a business environment, employers usually want systems analysts to have a background in business management or a closely related field, while a background in the physical sciences, applied mathematics, or engineering is preferred for work in scientifically oriented organizations. Since employers generally look for experience, entry-level employees enhance their employment opportunities by participating in internship or co-op programs offered through their schools. A related background in the industry in which the job is located, such as financial services, banking, or accounting, can also give an applicant an edge.

References:
http://www.math.utep.edu/mathmajor/system/home.html
http://www.careersprep.com/html/it_anlst.html
http://faculty.sxu.edu/~rogers/sys/sa.html

Man is a social element, so family and society influence our feelings, emotional arena while we come across any situation and get fail or not reach up to mark; any such adverse situation brings frustration. Trivial routines are capable to built frustration, e.g. inattentiveness of today's busy parents brings their children frustration. Learning disabilities at schools often frustrate students. Friends can cause us frustration too, especially when they betrayed us or a promise is broken. Broken promises are always frustrating and painful. Apart there are lots of situations or surroundings factors that could bring frustration in our life. The intensity of frustration phase may be variable from person to person and it depends upon prevailing circumstances at that time. Frustration is an outcome of many accrued 'negative emotions'. Such negativities in our behavior, as well as our external circumstance give rise to frustration. it is virtually impossible to list down each and every negativity associated with frustration. As stated earlier, many of these factors are relative in nature and obviously they will vary according to individual life experiences and personalities. We can say that frustration is a result or a complement of other behavioral negativities like envy, guilt, fear, phobia, jealousy, distrust, failure, loneliness, betrayal, shame and many more.

Our own emotions can make us frustrated, like misunderstandings, misinterpreting the situation, suspicion, pride, arrogance etc. can unnecessarily bring the frustration. Every work that is done means is a unified combination of task and our performance or efficiency so as to get that work done. To avoid frustrations, we need to accept our factual position instead of putting hopes on vague imagination in which the situation would have been different. We need to co-relate our dreaming behavior to actual situation. When we observe ourselves carefully, we can actually realize our limitations and hence can work towards exploring our available resources unless it would cause even more frustration.

Our surrounding is a factors as well as assisting team play major role on our working ability. If our working ability gets hampered by external factors like non-cooperation of workers, that will bring frustration. We cannot expect any improvement against expressed will of other person if one is unwilling to put in the effort for it. If we waste our energy on such futile team that in fact is not interested in co-operating us, we get frustrated, we waste precious energy and attention and we will find ourselves stuck in a downward spiral of performance.

The IT Professional we interviewed is Mr. Gemrald R. Glibara, the M.I.S Department Head of AMS Group of Companies.His two most frequently experienced causes of frustration of IS professionals and users while working on an IS plans are as follows:

Resistant to Changes

The main reason behind the employee’s resistance is the underlying fear and anxiety caused by uncertainties of change. In most situations resistance arises out of individual problems rather than technical problems. Resistance is often because of attitudinal factors and blind spots, which the functional specialists have as a result of their concern for and preoccupation with technical aspects of new ideas.

One of the common reasons for resisting change is the feeling of discomfort with the nature of change itself, which may violate their moral belief systems. Another reason for resistance may be the method in which change is introduced. This is observed when authoritarian approach is used and people are not informed. Other reasons for resistance may be inequity where the employees feel that someone is likely to get greater benefit than they are likely to get.

SOURCES OF INDIVIDUAL RESISTANCE

1. Lack of knowledge : in situations when people do not have sufficient knowledge about the cause and effects of change they feel anxious and stressed and consequently resist to change. Employees also resists change because it threaten their need for security ,self-esteem, competence, status and social interaction. Irrespective ofthe nature of change it has been found that employees make efforts to protect them from effect of change and the reaction may range from simple complaint and grievances to passive resistance, sabotage, absenteeism an slowing down of work. Resistance to change takes place irrespective of the level of employee in the organization- whether one is white collar or a blue-collar worker.

However, when the change become inevitable, the employees try to offset the facts of change by desire for now learning / experiences and for the rewards that may come with change. In that case changes are requested and sought for by employees. Change reaction effects are seen in feeling of insecurity and the change of working situations or job. Change can have cascading effect when one person receives promotion; it leads to promotion of ten other people’s at lower levels. This is indicative of change reaction effects of a single precipitating event.

2. Selective perception : when changes are introduced employees are more concerned about how it would affect the entire organization. This is often observed when mode of payment is changed or reorganization is done. Also individuals assess the compatibility of the change with their belief and value systems.

3. Fear of Uncertainty : Uncertainty about the effect of change personally and professionally is another reason for individual resistance. The threat perceived by the employee may be imaginary, intended or unintended, big or small, direct or indirect. A number of fears like loss of status, power, income and uncertainty about their ability to cope with work-demand come in the way of accepting the change.

4. Aversion to Risk : change threatens those who like comfort of familiar. Change often requires personal transition where in familiar has to be destabilized. It calls for giving up the status quo, unlearning or unfreezing the person to integrate and absorb new learning. It is interesting that a number of individuals consider change to bring new opportunities. Research findings also support the view that positive approach to change results in opportunities for individuals during the transition period.

SOURCES OF ORGANISATIONAL RESISTANCE :

Factor built in the organizational system also lead to resistance to change. It has been observed that organizations are conservative and are therefore slow to change.

1. Inertia of a structure: A number of built-in mechanisms provide stability to organizations. Every organization has got its own systems, processes, policies, and procedures, which ought to be followed for uniformity and formalization of the process. Consequently any change in the structural aspects has cascading effect on other related systems and processes. This creates a hurdle in introducing organizational change. In organizations where structural changes are introduced, it takes long for people to accept and assimilate the structural change.

2. Threat to power dynamics: Structural change with ensuing changes in decision-making pattern can destabilize power relationships established over a period of time. Change in decision-making process from centralize decision making process to participative or democratic decision-making process form centralized decision-making can threaten managers affected by it.

3. Group pressure : Group norms evolved by an organization over the years become a bottleneck in bringing about change. It is common observation that a single member of a group accepts change suggested by management willingly. However, his group affiliation with a union does not allow him to do so. Therefore, he is likely to resists change.

4. Blinkered view of change : Any organization consists of four elements namely task, structure, technology, and people. Focus on any one of the elements of the organization will bring about corresponding change in other elements as well. Therefore, change can not have lopsided and limited perspective.

MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES TO OVER COME THE REGISTANCE :

1. Counseling: counseling has been found to be very effective in reducing individual resistance. Individual resistance occurs because of anxieties and fears and by letting people talk through their problems and anxieties can help them come to terms with change. This techniques is used on one-to-one and also in formal communication system with the whole team.

2. Force-field analysis : this technique provides an assessment of any change situation and presents a balance between the driving forces and the resisting forces. The participants are advised by the change agent to identify these forces. While identifying the restraining forces the group develops insight about ways of handling them. In a number of organizations this technique is used effectively to create a shared change processes for thinking through specific changes.

3. Commitment Charting : in any change there will be people who gain and others who lose. Therefore, in order to get the commitment of the people who are likely to loose, it is important to handle them with care, as they will be sensitive to any action. For a change to succeed it is important to have a critical mass and also to minimize the pain it causes to the affected. In order to do that a chart is prepared listing the names of key players and their commitment level to the change. The chart indicates the status of the people who have commitment at present and whose commitment needs to be ensured for change to be successful. Also the people who have no commitment need to be focused for gaining commitment.

In this regard our organization follows the ways as suggested by Watson (1969) to reduce the resistance. These relate to ownership of change, nature of change and the process of changing.

Ownership : resistance is likely to be low if the change is perceived as being the need of and suggested (sense of belongingness ) by those affected by it. And when it has the top management support.

Nature of Change : Resistance is reduced by joint and agreed diagnosis of the problems and burdens, conforming to the core values of the group, offering new and interesting experience to the group, and does not threaten autonomy and security.

Change process : Resistance is reduced by joint and agreed diagnosis of the problem, consensus on the board design of change, listening to “objections’(and learning from them), periodical review and feedback, development of high interpersonal trust and cohesive teams and openness to revision.

Communication Gap

Communication is one of the basic functions of management in any organization and its importance can hardly be overemphasized. It is a process of transmitting information, ideas, thoughts, opinions and plans between various parts of an organization.

It is not possible to have human relations without communication. However, good and effective communication is required not only for good human relations but also for good and successful business.

Effective communication is required at various levels and for various aspects in an organization such as -

For manager – employee relations:
Effective communication of information and decision is an essential component for management-employee relations. The manager cannot get the work done from employees unless they are communicated effectively of what he wants to be done? He should also be sure of some basic facts such as how to communicate and what results can be expected from that communication. Most of management problems arise because of lack of effective communication. Chances of misunderstanding and misrepresentation can be minimized with proper communication system

For motivation and employee morale:
Communication is also a basic tool for motivation, which can improve morale of the employees in an organization. Inappropriate or faulty communication among employees or between manager and his subordinates is the major cause of conflict and low morale at work. Manager should clarify to employees about what is to be done, how well are they doing and what can be done for better performance to improve their motivation. He can prepare a written statement, clearly outlining the relationship between company objectives and personal objectives and integrating the interest of the two.

For increase productivity:
With effective communication, you can maintain a good human relation in the organization and by encouraging ideas or suggestions from employees or workers and implementing them whenever possible, you can also increase production at low cost.

For employees:
It is through the communication that employees submit their work reports, comments, grievances and suggestions to their seniors or management. Organization should have effective and speedy communication policy and procedures to avoid delays, misunderstandings, confusion or distortions of facts and to establish harmony among all the concerned people and departments.

Importance of written communication:
Communication may be made through oral or written. In oral communication, listeners can make out what speakers is trying to say, but in written communication, text matter in the message is a reflection of your thinking. So, written communication or message should be clear, purposeful and concise with correct words, to avoid any misinterpretation of your message. Written communications provides a permanent record for future use and it also gives an opportunity to employees to put up their comments or suggestions in writing.

So, effective communication is very important for successful working of an organization. Business writing software with grammar checker and text enrichment tool, which enhances a simple sentence into more professional and sophisticated one, can be used for writing effective business communications. For more information, please visit

A company's business plan is one of its most important documents. It can be used by managers and executives for internal planning. It can be used as the basis for loan applications from banks and other lenders. It can be used to persuade investors that a company is a good investment. For start-up ventures, the process of preparing a business plan serves as a road map to the future by making entrepreneurs and business owners think through their strategies, evaluate their basic business concepts, recognize their business's limitations, and avoid a variety of mistakes.

Business Plan is the primary source of information for potential purchasers of a company or one of its divisions or product lines. As with outside lenders and investors, business plans prepared for potential buyers provide them with verifiable facts and projections about the company's performance. The business plan must communicate the basic business premise or concept of the company, present its strengths as well as weaknesses, and provide indications of the company's long-term viability. When a company is attempting to sell off a division or product line, the business plan defines the new business entity.

Virtually every business needs a business plan. Lack of proper planning is one of the most often cited reasons for business failures. Business plans help companies identify their goals and objectives and provide them with tactics and strategies to reach those goals. They are not historical documents; rather, they embody a set of management decisions about necessary steps for the business to reach its objectives and perform in accordance with its capabilities.

Preparing the Business Plan

The process of preparing and developing a business plan is an interactive one that involves every functional area of a company. Successful business plans are usually the result of team effort, in which all employees provide input based on their special areas of expertise and technical skill. Business owners and managers provide overall support for the planning process as well as general guidelines and feedback on the plan as it is being developed.

Once the planning process has been fully organized, participants can begin the process of assessment. Internal evaluations include identification of strengths and weaknesses of all areas of the business. In addition, it is generally useful to assess and evaluate such external factors as the general economy, competition, relevant technologies, trends, and other circumstances outside the control of the company that can affect its performance or fundamental health.
Setting goals and defining strategies are the next key steps in the planning process. Using the assessment and evaluation of internal and external factors, fundamental goals for the business are developed. Pertinent areas to be studied include the company's competitive philosophy, its market focus, and its customer service philosophy. Specific performance and operational strategies are then established, based on these goals.

After strategies and goals have been defined, they are translated into specific plans and programs. These plans and programs determine how a company's resources will be managed in order to implement its strategies and achieve its goals. Specific areas that require their own plans and programs include the overall organization of the company, sales and marketing, products and production, and finance. Finally, these specific plans are assembled into the completed business plan.

Elements of a Business Plan

Business plans must include authoritative, factual data, usually obtained from a wide range of sources. The plans must be written in a consistent and realistic manner. Contradictions or inconsistencies within a business plan create doubts in the minds of its readers. Problems and risks associated with the business should be described rather than avoided, then used as the basis for presenting thoughtful solutions and contingency plans. Business plans can be tailored to the needs and interests of specific audiences by emphasizing or presenting differently certain categories of information in different versions of the plan.

Business plans contain a number of specific elements as well as certain general characteristics. These include a general description of the company and its products or services, an executive summary, management and organizational charts, sales and marketing plans, financial plans, and production plans. They describe the general direction of a company in terms of its underlying philosophy, goals, and objectives. Business plans explain specific steps and actions that will be taken as well as their rationale. That is, they not only tell how a company will achieve its strategic objectives, they also tell why specific decisions have been made. Anticipated problems and the company's response to them are usually included. In effect, business plans are a set of management decisions about how the company will proceed along a specified course of action, with justifications for those decisions. Listed below are brief descriptions of the major elements found in business plans.

Include the same information on the title page. If you have a logo, you can use it, too. A table of contents follows the executive summary or statement of purpose, so that readers can quickly find the information or financial data they need.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. This is usually a two-to five-page summary of the entire business plan. It is an important part of the plan, in that it is designed to capture the reader's attention and create an interest in the company. It usually includes the company's mission statement and summarizes its competitive advantages, sales and profit projections, financial requirements, plans to repay lenders or investors, and the amount of financing requested.

DESCRIPTION OF BUSINESS. The business description includes not only a profile of the company, but also a picture of the industry in which the company operates. Every business operates within a specific context that affects its growth potential. The description of a company's operating environment may cover new products and developments in the industry, trends and outlook for the industry, and overall economic trends.

The intent of the company profile, meanwhile, is to provide readers with a description of unique features that give the company an edge in the environment in which it competes. A brief company history reveals how specific products and services were developed, while descriptions of pertinent contracts and agreements should also be mentioned (information on contracts and legal agreements may also be included in an appendix to the business plan). Other topics covered include operational procedures and research and development.

DESCRIPTION OF PRODUCTS AND/OR SERVICES. The goal of this section is to differentiate a company's products or services from those of the competition. It describes specific customer needs that are uniquely met by the firm's products or services. Product features are translated into customer benefits. Product life cycles and their effects on sales and marketing can be described. The company's plans for a new generation of products or services may also be included in this section.

DESCRIPTION OF MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE. The quality of a company's management team can be the most important aspect of a business plan. This section presents the strengths of the company's management team by highlighting relevant experience, achievements, and past performance. Key areas include management's ability to provide planning, organizational skills, and leadership. This section also contains information about the company's ownership and work force. It may present an existing or planned organizational structure that will accomplish the goals set forth in the business plan. Specific management and control systems are often described as well.

MARKET ANALYSIS. A thorough market analysis serves as the basis for a company's sales and marketing plans. The analysis generally covers the company's competition, customers, products, and market acceptance. The competitive analysis details the competition's strengths and weaknesses, providing a basis for discovering market opportunities. A customer analysis provides a picture of who buys and uses the company's products or services. This section of the business plan highlights how the company's products or services satisfy previously unfulfilled market needs. It also includes evidence of market acceptance of the company's unique products or services.

SALES AND MARKETING PLAN. The marketing plan delineates the methods and activities that will be employed to reach the company's revenue goals. This section describes the company's customer base, products or services, and marketing and sales programs. The latter is supported by conclusions drawn from the market analysis. Different revenue outcomes may be presented to allow for contingency planning in the areas of finance and production.

PRODUCTION PLAN. A production plan is usually included if the business is involved in manufacturing a product. Based on the sales and marketing plan, the production plan covers production options that are available to produce a desired mix of products. The production plan contains information that allows for budgeting for such costs as labor and materials. In non-manufacturing companies, this section would cover new service development.

FINANCIAL PLAN. This section covers the financing and cash flow requirements implicit in other areas of the business plan. It contains projections of income, expenses, and cash flow, as well as descriptions of budgeting and financial controls. Financial projections must be supported by verifiable facts, such as sales figures or market research. Monthly figures are generally given for the first two years, followed by annual figures for the next three to eight years. If the business plan is written for investors or lenders, the amount of financing required may be included here or in a separate section.

IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE. This section provides key dates pertaining to finance, marketing, and production. It indicates when specific financing is needed, when specific aspects of a particular marketing campaign will take place, and delivery dates based on production schedules.

CONTINGENCYPLANS. This section defines problems and challenges that the company may face and outlines contingency plans for overcoming obstacles that might arise. Specific topics that may be explored are competitive responses, areas of weakness or vulnerability, legal constraints, staffing, and continuity of leadership.

OTHER DETAILS. Most business plans include a table of contents and a cover sheet containing basic information about the company. An appendix may include a variety of documentation that supports different sections of the business plan. Among the items that may be found in an appendix are footnotes from the main plan, biographies, graphs and charts, copies of contracts and agreements, and references.

On the other hand, Information Systems Plan described the sequence for implementing specific information systems. The goal of the strategy is to deliver the most valuable business information at the earliest time possible in the most cost-effective manner.

According to Whitemarsh ISP, The end product of the information systems project is an information systems plan (ISP). Once deployed, the information systems department can implement the plan with confidence that they are doing the correct information systems project at the right time and in the right sequence. The focus of the ISP is not one information system but the entire suite of information systems for the enterprise. Once developed, each identified information system is seen in context with all other information systems within the enterprise.

Characteristics of a Quality ISP

A quality ISP must exhibit five distinct characteristics before it is useful. These five are presented in the table that follows.

a.) Timely¬¬- The ISP must be timely. An ISP that is created long after it is needed is useless. In almost all cases, it makes no sense to take longer to plan work than to perform the work planned.

b.) Useable- The ISP must be useable. It must be so for all the projects as well as for each project. The ISP should exist in sections that once adopted can be parceled out to project managers and immediately started.

c.) Maintainable -The ISP should be maintainable. New business opportunities, new computers, business mergers, etc. all affect the ISP. The ISP must support quick changes to the estimates, technologies employed, and possibly even to the fundamental project sequences. Once these changes are accomplished, the new ISP should be just a few computer program executions away.

d.) Quality- While the ISP must be a quality product, no ISP is ever perfect on the first try. As the ISP is executed, the metrics employed to derive the individual project estimates become refined as a consequence of new hardware technologies, code generators, techniques, or faster working staff. As these changes occur, their effects should be installable into the data that supports ISP computation. In short, the ISP is a living document. It should be updated with every technology event, and certainly no less often than quarterly.

e.) Reproducible The ISP must be reproducible. That is, when its development activities are performed by any other staff, the ISP produced should essentially be the same. The ISP should not significantly vary by staff assigned.

Therefore, Business Plans and IS Plan written primarily for use within the company generally stress the benefits that will result from implementation of the plan. These may include improved and more consistent performance, improved coordination and consistency among various segments of the company, greater ability to measure performance, empowerment of the work force, and a better motivated and educated work force. The plan provides a comprehensive framework and direction for ongoing operations.

It is also use to identify the company's strengths and weaknesses, potential problems, and emerging issues. They set forth performance standards on which expectations will be based, and clearly define goals and objectives to allow for coordination and better communication between all company areas.

References:
http://www.business-plan-success.com/Articles/BusinessPlanDefinition/
http://www.answers.com/topic/business-plan
http://www.entrepreneur.com/encyclopedia/term/82322.html

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